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Indian
Architecture Through the Ages
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The Indus civilization or the Harappan
civilization, which flourished during the Bronze Age i.e.
2500-2000 BC is ranked among the four widely known civilizations
of the old world. Extensive excavation work that has been done
since Independence has so far identified more than 100 sites
belonging to this The Indus civilization or the Harappan
civilization, which flourished during the Bronze Age i.e.
2500-2000 BC is ranked among the four widely known civilizations
of the old world. Extensive excavation work that has been done
since Independence has so far identified more than 100 sites
belonging to this civilization. A few prominent among them are
Dholavira (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal (Gujarat),
Sarkotada (Gujarat), Diamabad (Maharashtra), Alamgirpur (U.P.),
Bhagwanpura (Haryana), Banawali (Haryana), Kuntasi, Padri
(Gujarat) and Mauda (Jammu).
Extensive town planning was the characteristic of this
civilization, which is evident from the gridiron pattern for the
layout of cities, some with fortifications and the
elaborateLothal relic drainage and water management systems. The
houses were built of baked bricks, which is rare in contemporary
civilizations at Mesopotamia and Egypt. Bricks of fixed sizes,
as well as stone and wood were also used for building. Buildings
in the lower area are rather monotonous, being mainly functional
rather than decorative. But many houses are two storeyed. The
most imposing of the buildings is the Great Bath of Mohenjodaro.
It is 54.86 metres long and 32.91 metres wide and with 2.43
metres thick outer walls. The Bath had galleries and rooms on
all sides. Another important structure was the Granary complex
comprising of blocks with an overall area of 55 x 43 metres. The
granaries were intelligently constructed, with strategic air
ducts and platforms divided into units.
THE MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE
If the remnants of the Indus culture are excluded, the earliest
surviving architectural heritage in India is that of the
Mauryans. The Mauryan period was a great landmark in the history
of Indian art. Some of the monuments and pillars belonging to
this period are considered as the finest specimens of Indian
art. The Mauryan architecture was embalmed in timber, for rocks
and stones were not as freely in use then. The art of polishing
of wood reached so much perfection during the Mauryan period
that master craftsmen used to make wood glisten like a mirror.
Chandra Gupta Maurya had built many buildings, palaces and
monuments with wood, most of which perished with time. In 300
B.C., Chandragupta Maurya constructed a wooden fort 14.48 km
long and 2.41km wide, along the Ganges in Bihar. However, only a
couple of teak beams have survived from this fort.
Ashoka was the first Mauryan Emperor who began to "think in
stone". The stonework of the Ashokan Period (3rd century B.C.)
was of a highly diversified order and comprised of lofty
free-standing pillars, railings of the stupas, lion thrones and
other colossal figures. The use of stone had reached such great
perfection during this time that even small fragments of stone
art was given a high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel.
While most of the shapes and decorative forms employed were
indigenous in origin, some exotic forms show the influence of
Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures.
The Ashokan period marked the beginning of the Buddhist School
of architecture in India. It witnessed the construction of many
rock-cut caves, pillars, stupas and palaces. A number of
cave-shrines belonging to this period have been excavated in the
Barabar and Nagarjuni hills and Sitamarhi in Bihar. These
rock-cut sanctuaries, quarried from large masses of rocks called
gneisses, are simple in plan and are devoid of all interior
decorative carvings. The caves served as the residences of the
monks. There are several inscriptions, which indicate that these
rock-cut sanctuaries were constructed by Emperor Ashoka for the
monks of the Ajivika sect, who are more closely related to the
Jains than to the Buddhists.
The Ashokan rock-edict at Dhauli, near Bhubaneshwar, is
considered to be the earliest rock-cut sculpture in India. It
has a sculpted elephant on the top, which signifies the
Emperor's conversion to Buddhism after his Kalinga victory. The
monolithic Ashokan pillars are marvels of architecture and
sculpture. These were lofty free standing monolithic columns
erected on sacred sites. Originally there were about thirty
pillars but now only ten are in existence, of which only two
with lion capitals stand in situ in good condition at Kolhua and
Laurya Nandangarh respectively. Each pillar was about 15.24
metres high and weighed about 50 tonnes and was made out of fine
sandstone. The pillar consisted of three parts-the prop, the
shaft and the capitol. The capitol consisted of fine polished
stone containing one or more animal figures in the round. Made
of bricks, they carried declarations from the king regarding
Buddhism or any other topic. The pillars did not stand in
isolation and were usually found near stupas in a spot either
unknowingly marked by the Buddha himself or along the royal
route to Magadha, the capital. The Sarnath pillar is one of the
finest pieces of sculpture of the Ashokan period. The Ashokan
pillars also throw light on the contacts India had with Persia
and other countries. Two of the Ashkan edicts have also been
found at Laghman, near Jalalabad in modern Afghanistan.
Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several stupas,
which were large halls, capped with domes and bore symbols of
the Buddha. The most important ones are located at Bharhut,
Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Amravati and Nagarjunakonda. The Buddhist
shrines or the monasteries were built in somewhat irregular
designs following the Gandhara style of architecture. Built on
the patterns of a fort and defended by a stone wall, the
monastery evolved from the site of an ancient stupa. The
principle buildings were housed within a rectangular courtyard
with a stupa in the south and the monastery in the north.
Ashoka had also built a number of palaces, but most of them have
perished. Ashoka’s palace near Patna was a masterpiece. Enclosed
by a high brick wall, the highlight of the palace was an immense
76.2 metres high pillared-hall having three storeys. The Chinese
traveller Fahien was so impressed by this palace that he stated
that "it was made by spirits" and that its carvings are so
elegantly executed "which no human hands of this world could
accomplish". Made mostly of wood, it seems to have been
destroyed by fire. Its existence was pointed out during the
excavations at Kumrahar, near Patna, where its ashes have been
found preserved for several thousand years.
THE STUPAS
Sanchi Stupas: The early stupas were hemispherical in shape with
a low base. The hemispherical shape symbolized the cosmic
mountain. The later stupas assumed an increasingly cylindrical
form. The early stupas were known for their simplicity. Apart
from the than ruins of stupa at Piprahwa (Nepal), the core of
stupa No 1 at Sanchi can be considered as the oldest of the
stupas. Originally built by Asoka, it was enlarged in subsequent
centuries. An inscription by the ivory carvers of Vidisha on the
southern gateway throws light on the transference of building
material from perishable wood and ivory to the more durable
stone.
Amaravati Stupa: Amaravati stupa, built in 2nd or 1st century BC
was probably like the one at Sanchi, but in later centuries it
was transformed from a Hinayana shrine to a Mahayana shrine. The
diameter of the dome of the stupa at ground level was about
48.76 metres and its height was about 30 metres. Amaravati stupa
is different from the Bharhut and Sanchi stupas. It had
free-standing columns surmounted by lions near the gateways. The
dome was covered with sculptured panels. The stupa had an upper
circumambulatory path on the drum as at Sanchi. This path had
two intricately carved railings. The stone is greenish-white
limestone of the region.
Gandhara stupa: The Gandhara stupa is a further development of
stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut. In Gandhara stupas the base, dome
and the hemisphere dome are sculpted. The stupa tapers upward to
form a tower like structure. The stupas of Nagarjunakonda in
Krishna valley were very large. At the base there were brick
walls forming wheel and spokes, whish were filled with earth.
The Maha Chaitya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in the form of
Swastika, which is a sun symbol.
THE SUNGAS, KUSHANS AND SATAVAHANA ARCHITECTURE
The Mauryan dynasty crumbled after Asoka's death in 232 B.C. In
its wake came the Sungas and Kushans in the north and the
Satavahanas in the south. The period between 2nd century B.C.
and 3rd century A.D. marked the beginning of the sculptural
idiom in Indian sculpture where the elements of physical form
were evolving into a more refined, realistic and expressive
style. The sculptors strived at mastering their art, especially
of the human body, which was carved in high relief and bore
heaviness and vigour. These dynasties made advances in art and
architecture in areas like stone construction, stone carving,
symbolism and beginning of temple (or chaitya hall) and the
monastery (or vihara) constructions.
Under these dynasties the Asokan stupas were enlarged and the
earlier brick and wood works were replaced with stone-works. For
instance, the Sanchi Stupa was enlarged to nearly twice its size
in 150 B.C. and elaborate gateways were added later. The Sungas
also reconstructed the railings around the Barhut Stupa. The
Sungas also built the toranas or the gateways to the stupas. An
inscription at the Barhut Stupa indicates that the torana was
built during the reign of Sungas i.e. 184-72 B.C. These toranas
indicate the influence of Hellenistic and other foreign schools
in the Sunga architecture.
The Satavahanas constructed a large number of stupas at Goli,
Jaggiahpeta, Bhattiprolu, Gantasala, Nagarjunakonda and
Amravati. During the Kushan period (1-3 A.D.), the Buddha was
represented in human form instead of symbols. Buddha's image in
endless forms and replicas became the principal element in
Buddhist sculpture during the Kushan period. Another feature of
this period was that the Emperor himself was shown as a divine
person. The Kushans were the pioneers of the Gandhara School of
Art and a large number of monasteries; stupas and statues were
constructed during the reign of Kanishka.
THE SCHOOLS OF ART
Gandhara School of Art (50 B.C. to 500 A.D.): The Gadhara
region extending from Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was
an important centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century
A.D. The region became famous throughout the world since a new
school of Indian sculpture known as the Gandhara School
developed during that period. Owing to its strategic location
the Gandhara School imbibed all kinds of foreign influences like
Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and Kushan. The origin of Gandhara
art can be traced to the Greek rulers of Bactria and Northwest
India. But it was during the reign of Kanishka that the art
received great patronage.
The Gandhara School of Art is also known as the Graeco-Buddhist
School of Art since Greek techniques of Art were applied to
Buddhist subjects. The most important contribution of the
Gandhara School of Art was the evolution of beautiful images of
the Buddha and Bodhisattavas, which were executed in black stone
and modelled on identical characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon.
Hence it is said, "the Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek
but the heart of an Indian." The most characteristic trait of
Gandhara sculpture is the depiction of Lord Buddha in the
standing or seated positions. The seated Buddha is always shown
cross-legged in the traditional Indian way. Another typical
feature of the Gandhara Art is the rich carving, elaborate
ornamentation and complex symbolism. The best specimens of
Gandhara art are from Jaulian and Dharmarajika stupa at Taxila
and from Hadda near Jalalabad in modern Afghanistan. The tallest
rock-cut statue of Lord Buddha is also located at Bamiyan in
modern Afghanistan and dates back to 3-4 century AD.
Mathura School of Art: The Mathura School of art flourished
at the holy city of Mathura, especially between 1-3 A.D. It
established the tradition of transforming Buddhist symbols into
human form. Buddha’s first image can be traced to Kanishka’s
reign (about 78 A.D.). The earliest sculptures of Buddha were
made keeping theMathura Style yaksha prototype in mind. They
were depicted as strongly built with the right hand raised in
protection and the left hand on the waist. The figures produced
by this school of art do not have moustaches and beards as in
the Gandhara Art. These figures can be seen in the museum of
Mathura. The standing Buddha figures resembles the yaksha
figures and indicates the Kushan influence. The seated figures
are in the padmasana posture. The Mathura School not only
produced beautiful images of the Buddha but also of the Jain
Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. Many
scholars believe that the Mathura School of Art, although of
indigenous origin, was greatly influenced by the Gandhara School
of Art. The Guptas adopted the Mathura School of Art and further
improvised and perfected it.
Amravati School of Art: This school of art developed at
Amravati, on the banks Amravati Architecture of the Krishna
River in
 modern Andhra Pradesh. It is the site for the largest
Buddhist stupa of South India. Its construction began in 200
B.C. and was completed in 200 A.D. The diameter of the stupa at
the base was 51 metres. The height of the dome was 31 metres and
its outer railing was 5 metres wide. The stupendous stupa could
not withstand the ravages of time and its ruins are preserved in
the London Museum.
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